Evidence

Cervical

Kuntz, C, et al., 2000, "Type II odontoid fractures in the elderly: early failure of nonsurgical treatment.", Neurosurgical Focus, 8(6), p. e7

TE, et al., 2001, "Indications of Philadelphia collar in the treatment of upper cervical injuries.", European Journal of Emergency Medicine, 8(1), pp. 33-37

Müller EJ, et al. 2003, "Non-rigid immobilisation of odontoid fractures.", European Spine Journal, 12(5), pp. 522-525

Kontautas E, et al. 2005, " Management of acute traumatic atlas fractures.", Journal of Spinal Disorders and Techniques, 18(5), pp. 402-405

Moon, MS. et al, 2006, "Treatment of dens fracture in adults: A report of thirty-two cases.", Bulletin of the Hospital for Joint Diseases, 63(3-4), pp. 108-112

Bransford RJ et al. (2009) ‘Halo vest treatment of cervical spine injuries: a success and survivorship analysis’, Spine, 34(15), pp. 1561–1566

Maserati (2009) ‘Occipital condyle fractures: clinical decision rule and surgical management.’, Journal of neurosurgery., 11(4), pp. 388–95

Nourbakhsh, A., Shi, R., Vannemreddy, P. and Nanda, A. (2009). Operative versus nonoperative management of acute odontoid Type II fractures: a metaanalysis: Clinical article. Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine SPI, 11(6), pp.651–658.

Harrop, J.S., Hart, R. and Anderson, P.A. (2010). Optimal Treatment for Odontoid Fractures in the Elderly. Spine, 35(Supplement), pp.S219–S227

Fagin, AM. et al, 2010, "Odontoid fractures in the elderly: should we operate?", Journal of Trauma, 68(3), pp. 583-586

Schoenfeld AJ et al. (2011) ‘Type II odontoid fractures of the cervical spine: do treatment type and medical comorbidities affect mortality in elderly patients?’, Spine, 36(11), pp. 879–885

Boakye M et al. (2012) ‘Impact of age, injury severity score, and medical comorbidities on early complications after fusion and halo-vest immobilization for c2 fractures in older adults: a propensity score matched retrospective cohort study’, Spine, 37(10), pp. 854–859

Sime, D., Pitt, V., Pattuwage, L., Tee, J., Liew, S. and Gruen, R. (2013). Non-surgical interventions for the management of type 2 dens fractures: a systematic review. ANZ Journal of Surgery, 84(5), pp.320–325

RIZK, E, (2013), "Nonoperative management of odontoid fractures: A review of 59 cases", 115 (9), pp. 1653 - 1656

Scheyerer, MJ. et al, 2013, "Treatment modality in type II odontoid fractures defines the outcome in elderly patients.", BMC Surgery, 9(13), pp. 54

Paulus, M.C., Klatman, S. and Babak Kalantar, S. (2014). Current controversies in nonoperative management of Type II odontoid fractures in the elderly. Seminars in Spine Surgery, 26(3), pp.187–191.

Aarabi, B. et al, 2014, "Comparative effectiveness of surgical versus nonoperative management of unilateral, nondisplaced, subaxial cervical spine facet fractures without evidence of spinal cord injury: clinical article.", Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine, pp. 270-277.

Al-Mahfoudh, R., Beagrie, C., Woolley, E., Zakaria, R., Radon, M., Clark, S., Pillay, R. and Wilby, M. (2015). Management of Typical and Atypical Hangman’s Fractures. Global Spine Journal, 6(3), pp.248–256.

Schroeder, G.D., Kepler, C.K., Kurd, M.F., Paul, J.T., Rubenstein, R.N., Harrop, J.S., Brodke, D.S., Chapman, J.R. and Vaccaro, A.R. (2015). A Systematic Review of the Treatment of Geriatric Type II Odontoid Fractures. Neurosurgery, 77(Supplement 1), pp.S6–S14.

FALAVIGNA, A, (2015), "Trends in Epidemiology and Management of Traumatic Type II Odontoid Fracture: Experience in Latin America", Journal Spine Journal, 15 (10), pp. 234

Sharpe, J.P. et al. (2016) ‘The old man and the C-spine fracture: Impact of halo vest stabilization in patients with blunt cervical spine fractures’, Journal of Trauma & Acute Care Surgery, 80(1), pp. 76–80.

Konieczny, M.R., Gstrein, A. and Müller, E.J. (2012). Treatment Algorithm for Dens Fractures: Non-Halo Immobilization, Anterior Screw Fixation, or Posterior Transarticular C1-C2 Fixation. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 94(19), p.e144.

Lin, B. et al, 2016, "Management of combined atlas-axis fractures: a review of forty one cases.", International Orthopaedic, 40(6), pp. 1179-1186

Waqar, M., Van-Popta, D., Barone, D.G. and Sarsam, Z. (2017). External Immobilization of Odontoid Fractures: A Systematic Review to Compare the Halo and Hard Collar. World Neurosurgery, 97(97), pp.513–517.

Hida, T., Sakai, Y., Ito, K., Ito, S., Imagama, S., Ishiguro, N. and Harada, A. (2017). Collar Fixation Is Not Mandatory After Cervical Laminoplasty: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Spine, [online] 42(5).

ÖZTÜRK, S, (2017), "The effectiveness and clinical outcomes of the Minerva cervical thoracic jacket in patients with type II odontoid fractures", Turkish Journal of Medical Sciences, 47 (4), pp. 1089-1096

OSMAN, A, (2017), "Conservative management of odontiod peg fractures, long term", Journal of Clinical Orthopaedic Trauma, 8 (2), pp. 103-106

Niemeier (2018) ‘Type III odontoid fractures: A subgroup analysis of complex, high-energy fractures treated with external immobilization’, Journal of craniovertebral junction & spine., 9(1), pp. 63–67.

Niemeier, T.E., Manoharan, S.R., Mukherjee, A. and Theiss, S.M. (2018). Conservative Treatment of Hangman Variant Fractures. Clinical Spine Surgery: A Spine Publication, 31(5), pp.E286–E290.

Iyer, S., Hurlbert, R.J. and Albert, T.J. (2017). Management of Odontoid Fractures in the Elderly: A Review of the Literature and an Evidence-Based Treatment Algorithm. Neurosurgery, 82(4), pp.419–430.

Gembruch, O., Lemonas, E., Ahmadipour, Y., Sure, U., El Hindy, N. and Müller, O. (2018). Nonoperative management of C-2 dens fractures: Single center experience and review of the literature. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery, 169(169), pp.166–173.

Smith, R. M. et al. (2018) " Atlas Fractures: Diagnosis, Current Treatment Recommendations, and Implications for Elderly Patients.", Clinical Spine Surgery, 31(7), pp. 278-284

De Bonis, P. et al. (2019) ‘Functional Outcome of Elderly Patients Treated for Odontoid Fracture: A Multicenter Study’, Spine (03622436), 44(13), pp. 951–958.

Pehler, S., Jones, R., Staggers, J.R., Antonetti, J., McGwin, G. and Theiss, S.M. (2018). Clinical Outcomes of Cervical Facet Fractures Treated Nonoperatively With Hard Collar or Halo Immobilization. Global Spine Journal, [online] 9(1), pp.48–54.

McIlroy, S., Lam, J., Khan, M.F., Mirza, A.B., Philip, J.A., Grahovac, G. and Bell, D. (2020). Conservative Management of Type II Odontoid Fractures in Older People: A Retrospective Observational Comparison of Osseous Union Versus Nonunion. Neurosurgery, 87(6), pp.E648–E654.

Kurucan, E., Sulovari, A., Thirukumaran, C., Greenstein, A., Molinari, R. and Mesfin, A. (2020). Volume-outcome relationship in halo vest utilization for C2 fractures. The Spine Journal, 20(10), pp.1676–1684.

Common, K.V. and Hanger, H.C. (2021) ‘A broken neck: outcomes from conservative management of C2 fractures in older adults’, New Zealand Medical Journal, 134(1547), pp. 93–101.

Harris, L., Arif, S., Elliot, M., Brady, Z., Lawrence, A., Lee, C. and Tsang, K. (2021). Fusion rates for conservative and surgical management of type II odontoid fractures and its impact. British Journal of Neurosurgery, [online] 35(5), pp.607–610.

Malnik, S.L., Scott, K.W., Zino, K.M., Alcindor, D., Tavanaiepour, K., Tavanaiepour, D., Crandall, M. and Rahmathulla, G. (2021). Halo vest immobilization – an institutional review of safety in acute cervical spine injury from 2013 to 2017. British Journal of Neurosurgery, [online] 35(5), pp.639–642.

Kelani, T.D., Lee, A., Walker, M., Koizia, L.J., Dani, M., Fertleman, M.B. and Kedgley, A.E. (2021). The Influence of Cervical Spine Angulation on Symptoms Associated With Wearing a Rigid Neck Collar. Geriatr Orthop Surg Rehabil, [online] 12, p.21514593211012391.

Coleman, N. et al. (2022) ‘Comparison of Hard and Soft Cervical Collars for the Management of Odontoid Peg Fractures in the Elderly’, Geriatric Orthopaedic Surgery & Rehabilitation, 13, pp. 1–9.

Steiner, J. et al. (2022) ‘Outcomes after application of halothoracic orthosis for cervical spine trauma’, Prosthetics & Orthotics International, 46(5), pp. 505–509.

Fercho, J., Krakowiak, M., Yuser, R., Szmuda, T., Zieliński, P., Szarek, D., Pettersson, S.D. and Miękisiak, G. (2022). Evaluation of Movement Restriction of Spinal Orthoses Using Inertial Measurement Units. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(24).

Ogden M., Erdogan A.M., Karagedik M.I., Baser S.; Bulut I.U., Sevimoglu O., Yuksel U., Bakar B. (2023). Analysis of radiological measurement parameters that can predict the type of treatment to be applied in odontoid fractures: Clinical research. Journal of Craniovertebral Junction and Spine. 14(3), (pp 245-252).

Thoracolumbar

Ohana, N. et al, 2000, "Is there a need for lumbar orthosis in mild compression fractures of the thoracolumbar spine?: A retrospective study comparing the radiographic results between early ambulation with and without lumbar orthosis", Journal of Spinal Disorders, 13(4), pp. 305-308

Apple DF Jr. and Perez M, 2006, ‘Prospective study of orthotic use after operative stabilization of traumatic thoracic and lumbar fractures’, Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation, 12(2), pp. 77–82.

Yi, L., et al., 2006, "Operative versus non-operative treatment for thoracolumbar burst fractures without neurological deficit.", Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Article No.: CD005079, updated in 2013, (6), CD005079

Butler JS, et al., 2007, "The management and functional outcome of isolated burst fractures of the fifth lumbar vertebra.", Spine, 32(4), pp. 443-447

Dai L et al. (2008) ‘Conservative treatment of thoracolumbar burst fractures: a long-term follow-up results with special reference to the load sharing classification’, Spine, 33(23), pp. 2536–2544. doi:10.1097/BRS.0b013e3181851bc2.

Bailey (2009) ‘Comparison of thoracolumbosacral orthosis and no orthosis for the treatment of thoracolumbar burst fractures: interim analysis of a multicenter randomized clinical equivalence trial.’, Journal of neurosurgery., 11(3), pp. 295–303.

Stadhouder A et al. (2009) ‘Nonoperative treatment of thoracic and lumbar spine fractures: a prospective randomized study of different treatment options’, Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma, 23(8), pp. 588–594.

Adam L. Shimer, Brian W. Su, 2010, "Operative versus Nonoperative Treatment of Thoracolumbar Burst Fractures", 22(1), pp. 38-43

Bailey, C., Dvorak, M., Nadeau, M., Aludino, A., RosasArellano, P., Boyd, M., Paquette, S., Kwon, B., France, J., Gurr, K. and al, et (2011). No orthosis is equivalent to TLSO for the treatment of thoracolumbar burst fractures without neurologic injury: results from a multicenter RCT. Spine, 11(10), pp. 1S‐2S.

Lee, H., Park, S., Lee, S., Suh, S. and Hong, J. (2012). Comparative analysis of clinical outcomes in patients with osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures (OVCFs): conservative treatment versus balloon kyphoplasty. The Spine Journal, 12(11), pp.998–1005

Talic, A, et al., 2012, "Effects of conservative treatment for osteoporotic thoracolumbal spine fractures.", Mater Sociomed, 24(1), pp. 16-20

Öztürk I, et al., 2012, "Early mobilization with customized TLSO brace in thoracolumbar burst fractures.", Acta Orthopaedica et Traumatologica Turcica, 46(5), pp. 373-378

Hoshino, M., Tsujio, T., Terai, H., Namikawa, T., Kato, M., Matsumura, A., Suzuki, A., Takayama, K., Takaoka, K. and Nakamura, H. (2013). Impact of Initial Conservative Treatment Interventions on the Outcomes of Patients With Osteoporotic Vertebral Fractures. Spine, 38(11), pp.E641–E648

Abudou, M., et al., 2013, "Surgical versus non-surgical treatment for thoracolumbar burst fractures without neurological deficit.", Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 6, Article No.: CD005079

Kim, H.-J. et al. (2014) ‘Comparative study of the treatment outcomes of osteoporotic compression fractures without neurologic injury using a rigid brace, a soft brace, and no brace: a prospective randomized controlled non-inferiority trial’, Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, American Volume, 96(23), pp. 1959–1966

Alcala-Cerra, G., Diaz-Becerra, C., Fernandes-Joaquim, A., Moscote-Salazar, L. and Paternina-Caicedo, A. (2014). Orthosis for thoracolumbar burst fractures without neurologic deficit: A systematic review of prospective randomized controlled trials. Journal of Craniovertebral Junction and Spine, 5(1), p.25

Shamji, M.F., Roffey, D.M., Young, D.K., Reindl, R. and Wai, E.K. (2014). A Pilot Evaluation of the Role of Bracing in Stable Thoracolumbar Burst Fractures Without Neurological Deficit. Journal of Spinal Disorders & Techniques, 27(7), pp.370–375

Bailey, C.S. et al. (2014) ‘Orthosis versus no orthosis for the treatment of thoracolumbar burst fractures without neurologic injury: a multicenter prospective randomized equivalence trial’, Spine Journal, 14(11), pp. 2557–2564.

Hitchon, PW, et al., 2014, "Predictors of outcome in the non-operative management of thoracolumbar and lumbar burst fractures.", British Journal of Neurosurgery, 28(5), pp. 653-657

Cankaya, D., Yilmaz, S., Deveci, A., Dundar, A., Yoldas, B., Toprak, A. and Tabak, Y. (2015). Clinical and radiological outcomes of conservative treatment after stable post-traumatic thoracolumbar fractures in elderly: Is it really best option for all elderly patients? Annals of Medicine & Surgery, 4(4), pp.346–350.

Erkan, S., Tosyalı, K., Özalp, T., Yercan, H. and Okcu, G. (2015). The analysis of functional and radiographic outcomes of conservative treatment in patients with low lumbar burst fractures. Injury, 46(46), pp.S36–S40.

Karimi, M. (2015). The effects of orthosis on thoracolumbar fracture healing: A review of the literature. Journal of Orthopaedics, 12(12), pp.S230–S237.

Wood, K.B., Buttermann, G.R., Phukan, R., Harrod, C.C., Mehbod, A., Shannon, B., Bono, C.M. and Harris, M.B. (2015). Operative Compared with Nonoperative Treatment of a Thoracolumbar Burst Fracture without Neurological Deficit. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 97(1), pp.3–9.

Meccariello, L., Muzii, Vitaliano F, Falzarano, G., Medici, A., Carta, S., Fortina, M. and Ferrata, P. (2017). Dynamic corset versus threepoint brace in the treatment of osteoporotic compression fractures of the thoracic and lumbar spine: a prospective, comparative study. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, [online] 29(3), pp.443–449.

Hitchon, PW., et al., 2016, "Nonoperative Management in Neurologically Intact Thoracolumbar Burst Fractures: Clinical and Radiographic Outcomes.", Spine, 41(6), pp. 483-489

Urquhart, J.C., Alrehaili, O.A., Fisher, C.G., Fleming, A., Rasoulinejad, P., Gurr, K., Bailey, S.I., Siddiqi, F. and Bailey, C.S. (2017). Treatment of thoracolumbar burst fractures: extended follow-up of a randomized clinical trial comparing orthosis versus no orthosis. Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine, 27(1), pp.42–47.

Piazza (2017) ‘Post-operative bracing after pedicle screw fixation for thoracolumbar burst fractures: A cost-effectiveness study.’, Journal of clinical neuroscience, 45, pp. 33–39.

Nataraj, A, et al., 2018, "Outcomes in Thoracolumbar Burst Fractures With a Thoracolumbar Injury Classification Score (TLICS) of 4 Treated With Surgery Versus Initial Conservative Management.", Clinical Spine Surgery, 31(6), pp. E317-E321

Kato, T., Inose, H., Ichimura, S., Tokuhashi, Y., Nakamura, H., Hoshino, M., Togawa, D., Hirano, T., Haro, H., Ohba, T. and al, et (2019). Comparison of rigid and softbrace treatments for acute osteoporotic vertebral compression fracture: a prospective, randomized, multicenter study. Journal of clinical medicine, [online] 8(2).

Zhang, J., Fan, Y., He, X., Du, J. and Hao, D. (2019). Bracing after percutaneous vertebroplasty for thoracolumbar osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures was not effective. Clinical Interventions in Aging, Volume 14, pp.265–270.

Hoh, D.J., Qureshi, S., Anderson, P.A., Arnold, P.M., Chi, J.H., Dailey, A.T., Dhall, Sanjay S, Eichholz, K.M., Harrop, J.S., Rabb, C.H., B, R.P., Kaiser, M.G. and O’Toole, J.E. (2019). Congress of Neurological Surgeons Systematic Review and EvidenceBased Guidelines on the Evaluation and Treatment of Patients With Thoracolumbar Spine Trauma: Nonoperative Care. Neurosurgery, [online] 84(1).

Jacobs, E., Senden, R., McCrum, C., van Rhijn, L.W., Meijer, K. and Willems, P.C. (2019). Effect of a semirigid thoracolumbar orthosis on gait and sagittal alignment in patients with an osteoporotic vertebral compression fracture. Clinical Interventions in Aging, Volume 14, pp.671–680.

D’Oria, S. et al. (2022) ‘Traumatic compression fractures in thoracic- lumbar junction: vertebroplasty vs conservative management in a prospective controlled trial’, Journal of NeuroInterventional Surgery, 14(2), pp. 202–206.

Inose, H., Kato, T., Ichimura, S., Nakamura, H., Hoshino, M., Togawa, D., Hirano, T., Tokuhashi, Y., Ohba, T., Haro, H., Tsuji, T., Sato, K., Sasao, Y., Takahata, M., Otani, K., Momoshima, S., Takahashi, K., Yuasa, M., Hirai, T. and Yoshii, T. (2021). Risk factors for subsequent vertebral fracture after acute osteoporotic vertebral fractures. European Spine Journal, [online] 30(9), pp.2698–2707.

Mulcahy (2021) ‘Orthosis versus no orthosis for the treatment of thoracolumbar burst fractures: A systematic review.’, Journal of clinical neuroscience, 85, pp. 49–56.

Fercho, J., Krakowiak, M., Yuser, R., Szmuda, T., Zieliński, P., Szarek, D., Pettersson, S.D. and Miękisiak, G. (2022). Evaluation of Movement Restriction of Spinal Orthoses Using Inertial Measurement Units. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(24).

Mohammad, S., Nourian, A., Mozafari, S., Farzinnia, S., Saeidi, M. and Bahrami, M. (2022). Original Article Evaluation of postoperative bracing on unstable traumatic lumbar fractures after pedicle screw fixation. Int J Burn Trauma, 12(4), pp.168–174.

Gutierrez-Gonzalez, R., Ortega, C., Royuela, A., Zamarron, A. (2023). Vertebral compression fractures managed with brace: risk factors for progression. European Spine Journal, 32, pp. 3885-3891.

Non-Specific

Pfeifer, M., Kohlwey, L., Begerow, B. and Minne, H.W. (2011). Effects of Two Newly Developed Spinal Orthoses on Trunk Muscle Strength, Posture, and Quality-of-Life in Women with Postmenopausal Osteoporosis. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 90(10), pp. 805–815

Ting, B., Lee, H.Q., Tan, T., Rutges, J., Marion, T., Tew, K.S., Bhalla, V., Menon, S., Oner, F.C., Fisher, C. and Tee, J.W. (2020). The Role of Spinal Orthoses in Osteoporotic Vertebral Fractures of the Elderly Population (Age 60 Years or Older): Systematic Review. Global Spine Journal, [online] 11(6), pp.975–987.

Osteoporosis